| The Principal’s Role in Rural Schools | | | | Synthesis. Challenges faced by principals in small |
| “Leadership is influence…[and] the ability to | | | | rural schools result in creative initiatives. As a |
| obtain followers.” (Cruzeiro & Morgan, | | | | result, principals in rural communities are moving |
| 2006, p. 569) | | | | beyond traditional pathways to deliver educational |
| Principals of rural schools spend a large percentage | | | | benefits to their students (Starr & White, |
| of their time teaching cross-age, multi-grade | | | | 2008). Such pathways involve cross-school |
| students (Starr & White, 2008). As recent | | | | activities, extensive use of information, |
| legislation and litigation continue to place more | | | | involvement from the community, and greater |
| responsibility on the principal, site level | | | | communication (Starr & White, 2008). |
| responsibilities challenge the constant, increasing | | | | Principals are working in a collective effort to |
| role of the administrator (Cruzeiro & Morgan, | | | | cover teaching, learning, leadership, and |
| 2006). | | | | management requirements, and to keep |
| Most principals in rural schools get little in the way | | | | up-to-date with standardization and legislation. |
| of administrative support, ancillary personnel, and | | | | These collective activities occur as a result of |
| ground staff (Starr & White, 2008). While | | | | school reform and the lack of available resources. |
| principals in larger schools are able to delegate and | | | | Some principal explain the basis of these |
| share in management tasks, this is not a luxury | | | | collaborative efforts as follows |
| afforded to their small rural counterparts (Starr | | | | - We decided to combine our collective funding to |
| & White, 2008). Regardless of the size of | | | | hire a teacher for six schools, and share learning |
| the school, principals still have a moral obligation to | | | | resources. [The literacy focus] was critical so we |
| comply with federal and state standards. The | | | | went from there, starting with “how can we |
| ethical behavior of educators, write Rude & | | | | solve this problem rather than re-inventing the |
| Whetstone (2008), is a driving force that ensures | | | | wheel?” |
| balance. | | | | - There’s a range of activities that are |
| Statement of the Problem | | | | organized across the schools—drama days, |
| A rural school district is classified as such in that all | | | | inter-school sports days, combined with |
| of the schools in that particular district are located | | | | professional development days. |
| in counties with a population density of fewer than | | | | - The job is getting bigger all the time. You |
| 10 persons per square mile and was identified as | | | | can’t do it all yourself. You can’t get |
| rural by a governmental agency (Cruzeiro & | | | | caught up in all the red tape about parents |
| Morgan, 2006). Due in large part to declining | | | | needing police checks and not being out of sight |
| enrollment, loss of resources, and loss of | | | | of teachers… You just have to be |
| population, most school districts across America, | | | | pragmatic—do what needs to be done and |
| rural schools and district are confronted and faced | | | | take on any help that’s on offer. |
| with continuous challenges (Patterson et al.., 2005). | | | | (Starr & White, 2008, p. 7) |
| Additional barriers involve resistance to change, | | | | Evaluation. Studies show regardless of the issues |
| economic challenges, and geographic challenges | | | | rural school districts have with staying in business, |
| (Cruzeiro & Morgan, 2006). | | | | studies do very well academically and socially as |
| Principals in rural school districts do not receive | | | | they move from middle school to high school |
| funding which assists in overcoming small-school | | | | (Patterson et al., 2005). According to a study |
| challenges. The problems faced by rural school | | | | released by the U.S. Department of Education, |
| principals create additional leadership challenges | | | | students in rural areas perform better in science |
| which require the need for increased school | | | | and math than those in urban areas (Anonymous, |
| personnel. Other problems faced by principals | | | | 2007). Patterson et al. (2005) writes “Evidence |
| include (a) redefined principalship, (b) workload | | | | of their accomplishments can be found in State |
| proliferation, (c) educational equity issues, (d) | | | | Assessment scores, honor roll listings, |
| escalating role multiplicity, and (e) school survival | | | | homecoming candidate announcements, and those |
| (Starr & White, 2008). | | | | who have excelled in various extracurricular |
| Redefined principalship. School reforms have made | | | | activities” (p. 153). |
| a drastic impact on the way schools operate and | | | | A 2006 report from the American College Testing |
| the way principals are positioned. Principals see | | | | Program, Inc. show performance of students on |
| their main role as instructional leaders (Starr | | | | this high stakes test continue to climb (Zacharakis |
| & White, 2008). Principals express concern | | | | et al., 2008). Anonymous (2007) states compared |
| over the bureaucratic interference, which changes | | | | to students at all grade levels, students in rural |
| the nature of their roles and the way in which | | | | schools scored better on national science and |
| they work (Starr & White, 2008). There is | | | | math tests than children in cities. Smaller schools, |
| constant complaining that rural school principals | | | | Patterson et al. (2005) writes, perform well on |
| have to do more with less (Starr & White, | | | | state-mandated assessment tests. |
| 2008). | | | | Students in Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and most |
| “Principals feel dislocated and alienated from | | | | other states in the Heartland evidence the highest |
| debates about education policy-making, whereas | | | | percentage (60-80%) of students who take this |
| previously they felt more involved, connected, | | | | test (Zacharakis et al., 2008). Further, the US |
| and integral to the business of making a | | | | Department of Education showed student |
| difference and setting direction” (Starr & | | | | achievement scores well above the state average |
| White, 2008, p. 5). There is an ongoing consensus | | | | in almost all content areas and in some cases |
| that principals are marginalized and ignored by | | | | reaching the state’s “standard of |
| education bureaucracies. Many principals are not | | | | excellence” rating (Patterson et al., 2005). |
| supported by the education system at either the | | | | According to Anonymous (2007), the |
| state or federal level (Starr & White, 2008). | | | | achievement in science by rural students is better |
| It is vital, says Wright (2007), that policy makers, | | | | because students get their education in a |
| educational administrators, and local citizens | | | | real-world setting as well as in classrooms. |
| understand that schools are vital to rural | | | | Zacharakis et al. (2008) write that measuring |
| communities. | | | | school success by the standard parameters of |
| Further, rural principals feel that there is a sense | | | | student test scores and achievement is |
| that the system is not set up to assist them, but | | | | meaningless in the overall scheme of defining the |
| rather the system is there to mandate, appraise, | | | | purpose of a rural community. “Parental |
| control, admonish when expectations are not met | | | | involvement is an important factor—huge |
| (Starr & White, 2008). Principals believe that | | | | factor—in student achievement” |
| the system is unsupportive and detracts from | | | | (Anonymous, 2007, p. 59). |
| the more important work—the system, they | | | | Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations |
| say, is a nuisance (Starr & White, 2008). | | | | “In any moment of decision the best thing |
| Workload proliferation. The biggest concern | | | | you can do is the right thing, the next best thing |
| expressed by principals is the increased amount | | | | is the wrong thing, and the worse thing you can |
| of mandatory administrative and compliance work | | | | do is nothing.” – Theodore Roosevelt |
| arriving from district, state, and federal | | | | (Rude & Whetstone, 2008). |
| governments (Starr & White, 2008). In | | | | Restatement of the Problem. Keeping well-liked |
| addition to their increased workload, principals are | | | | principals on board increases the morale of |
| also in the classrooms teaching. Workload | | | | parents and satisfies the need of the communities |
| pressures, principals say, also steal time from | | | | (Patterson et al., 2005). However, principals in rural |
| family life. Principals express anger and frustration | | | | schools have more than their fair share of work. |
| with the ever increasing workload in the following | | | | Principals in rural schools are overworked and |
| ways | | | | need more assistance to serve the schools in the |
| - I’m running the whole day… I find it very | | | | manner best serving to the students. The school |
| hard to close the door when someone wants to | | | | districts are not stepping up to the task of |
| see me—because who else would they | | | | providing more assistance to the small rural school |
| see?… It’s getting worse the longer I’m | | | | principal. As such, the lack of funding and |
| in the job. | | | | administrative assistance is reflective in the high |
| - It’s very tiring... You just never stop… | | | | turnover rate of principals who leave because the |
| It’s just never-ending. I’m always busy. | | | | work is too much to handle alone. Hardré et al. |
| - It’s the horrendous hours you put in to do | | | | (2007) writes “Many rural schools find it hard |
| things well…so it’s huge…You’ve still | | | | to recruit and retain high quality teaching |
| got to do it all the things you’ve got to do in | | | | staff.” |
| bigger schools, but you’ve only got one day | | | | Restatement of the Purpose. According to |
| of administrative school services officer support, | | | | Berkeley & Ludlow (2008), the ethical |
| and by the time they ay the bills…and get stuff | | | | imperative is an ideal based upon an assumption |
| ready for the school council, what’s normally | | | | that we must both do good and do good well (p. |
| left…is left to you… I just put in the extra | | | | 3). However, the job of a rural school principal is |
| hours. | | | | both cumbersome and burdensome. One principal |
| (Starr & White, 2008, p. 4). | | | | describes his disparate workload in this manner |
| Principals as absorbed with the extra requirements | | | | - You have to constantly be on the front foot... |
| of their existing work lives. They argue that they | | | | You try and keep up with what the Department |
| are too busy to engage with reforms, as the use | | | | wants, you have to watch your numbers |
| of personnel time is valuable. Because principals | | | | [enrollments], you have to keep an ear to the |
| are too busy coping with the everyday immediate | | | | ground to know what’s happening in the |
| needs of the school, they have no time to | | | | community that might spill over into the school, |
| participate in politics (Starr & White, 2008). | | | | and you have to watch how staff in the school |
| Educational equity issues. Educational equity, | | | | are faring with pressures to do as much as a |
| according to Starr & White (2008), appears | | | | large school does. It’s a juggling act that’s |
| dependent on a principal’s ability to prepare a | | | | a lot about survival. |
| strong, convincing case utilizing standardized | | | | (Starr & White, 2008, p. 6) |
| samples. Starr & White (2008) use the | | | | School leaders have the skills and experience to |
| example of staffing for students with special | | | | contribute to community leadership in rural |
| needs being a submission-based exercise with | | | | communities, yet they are recruited for their |
| strict criteria; therefore, there are fewer students | | | | school administrative skills and not for their |
| qualifying for extra support. | | | | community leadership skills (Zacharakis et al., |
| Resources are “difficult to obtain despite | | | | 2008). |
| increasing learning support needs as homogeneity | | | | Findings. It is possible for principals in rural schools |
| decreases in some rural populations” (Starr | | | | to focus on three components which might assist |
| & White, 2008, p. 5). Even if funding | | | | them in having success in their endeavors (a) |
| submissions are successful, there is more work to | | | | Legitimization of Alternatives, (b) Diverse |
| be done. Now suitable teachers have to be found | | | | Networks, and (c) Resource Mobilization. |
| and progress and final reports are required (Starr | | | | Legitimization of Alternatives focuses on the value |
| & White, 2008). | | | | of constructive controversy so that communities |
| Escalating role multiplicity. Principals, according to | | | | can engage in discussions around inclusive |
| Starr & White (2008), see their main role as | | | | processes, without the political nature of those |
| instructional leader. Principals in small rural schools | | | | discussions becoming personal (Willin & |
| do not have assistant principals and unanimously | | | | Reimer, 2008). As a consequence Willin & |
| complain about the lack of administrative support | | | | Reimer (2008) write, superficial harmony and |
| in undertaking increasing external demands (Starr | | | | destructive conflict are replaced with processes |
| & White, 2008). The breadth of the problem | | | | that encourage dialogue and thoughtful decision |
| is stated in the following comments | | | | making. Such alternatives are legitimized and |
| - There’s a feeling of great frustration | | | | valued, therefore continuous improvement occurs |
| amongst principals for the lack of support and | | | | as goals are monitored and assessed (Wallin |
| care from the Department… I think we’re | | | | & Reimer, 2008). |
| getting sick of trying to make do… Morale is | | | | Diverse Networks involve establishing horizontal |
| terribly low for principals…the role is busier and | | | | and vertical networks to access potential sources |
| more complex. | | | | of experience and knowledge (Wallin & |
| - I…work every night of the week. You work | | | | Reimer, 2008). Diverse networks are diverse and |
| most Sundays… If it’s for the school you | | | | inclusive and are created through both |
| don’t mind, but if it’s for the Department | | | | broad-based and personal invitations (Wallin & |
| you tend to put it off…otherwise you’d be | | | | Reimer, 2008). Horizontal networks are teachers, |
| working all of the time…You can’t take a | | | | administrators, staff, trustees, the school and the |
| day off. | | | | community. Vertical networks are individuals linked |
| - The work[load] has skyrocketed and resources | | | | to regional, provincial, and national organizations |
| have disappeared... There’s no time to do | | | | (Wallin & Reimer, 2008). Such networks are |
| anything thoroughly... The Department’s on | | | | diverse, can change and grow or narrow, |
| about outcomes and improvement, but how do | | | | depending on the issue at hand. |
| they expect it’s going to happen? | | | | Resource mobilization speaks to the need to |
| They’re making things worse. | | | | develop surplus in the community through private |
| - The support and money [from] the Department | | | | and collective local investments (Wallin & |
| isn’t there now. The job satisfaction isn’t | | | | Reimer, 2008). According to Wallin & Reimer |
| what it used to be. The demands are getting | | | | (2008), there is an equal distribution of resources |
| greater and greater… People are getting a lot | | | | and individuals or groups are encouraged to take |
| more jaded than they used to…they’re | | | | risks to improve the community. These resources |
| getting run down. There’s too much | | | | are available to everyone with the criteria being |
| expectation and responsibility put on principals. | | | | clear and visible to all. |
| (Starr & White, 2008, p. 4) | | | | Further findings indicate that principals are also |
| The sidelining of important educational matters | | | | community leaders who make significant |
| and unrealistic expectations are a burden on | | | | contribution to local community and economic |
| principals. The increase in responsibility also causes | | | | development activities (Zacharakis et al., 2008). It |
| an increase in managerial tasks, feelings of | | | | is concluded, therefore, that leaders should be |
| isolation, rising stress levels, and a decrease in | | | | developed from within. As such, local leadership |
| professional satisfaction (Starr & White, | | | | should include professional development training |
| 2008). These concerns detract from the real | | | | and support for principals to attend workshops |
| issues of leadership because of the lack of | | | | and national conferences (Zacharakis et al., 2008). |
| reward principals receive for their hard work, as | | | | The professional role and responsibility of rural |
| they receive no tangible evidence of any positive | | | | school principals receive a vast amount of |
| outcomes. | | | | guidance through the use of ethical guidelines as |
| School survival. As resources decline, funding for | | | | well as examples from real world practice (Rude |
| rural schools depend to a great extent on the | | | | & Whetstone, 2008). It would unethical for a |
| successful completion of funding submissions | | | | principal to assume a role or responsibility for |
| (Starr & White, 2008). One principal | | | | which he or she is not qualified. Once professional |
| expressed her frustration by stating | | | | development is implemented utilizing the right |
| - I get the impression that if you’re [a] small | | | | training, it can produce the desired results (Rude |
| [school], people think you can cope… You | | | | & Whetstone, 2008). |
| haven’t got that many kids to deal with, so | | | | Conclusions |
| you don’t need extra resources. You should | | | | Small rural principals spend a substantial amount of |
| just get on with it. I think we’re | | | | their time teaching. They “face multiple |
| disadvantaged from a perception point of view. I | | | | conflicting work demands in ways that far exceed |
| think we’re viewed as so insignificant as to | | | | those of their non-rural peers” (Starr & |
| not matter very much… So you start to think, | | | | White, 2008, p. 6). Further, Starr & White |
| “Why bother?” | | | | (2008) write, the necessity of teaching |
| (Starr & White, 2008, p. 5) | | | | multi-grade and ability levels concurrently and the |
| If schools become too small, they are subject to | | | | absence of personnel, such as an assistant |
| closure. Many rural schools are facing continual | | | | principal, business manager, specialist teacher, |
| enrollment decline. Starr & White (2008) | | | | student counselor, and maintenance staff, make |
| suggest population trends show no immediate | | | | the principal’s more labor intensive. Younker |
| solution to this problem. Principals made the | | | | (2008) writes, “one of the many joys of |
| following comments on this issue | | | | teaching in a rural school used to be the amount |
| - You’re concerned all the time about survival. | | | | of contact [he] could have with the students in |
| [The school is]…an asset in the community, you | | | | [his] class whom [he] saw as people, not statistical |
| wonder what would happen if it closed. So you | | | | variations” (p. 13). Principals need to get back |
| watch the enrollments and fear every time a | | | | to developing one-to-one relationships with their |
| family moves out of the district taking several | | | | students and not treat their students as wedges |
| kids with them. You can’t get caught riding a | | | | on pie charts. |
| dead horse. | | | | It is necessary that participants from all levels of |
| - The numbers went down quite rapidly…due to | | | | the school district participate in collaborative |
| local demographics. We had big groups—well big | | | | efforts. Combining the leadership of “principals, |
| for us, say 10 in each class. Then those students | | | | school councils, and education department officers |
| went off to high school and we were left with | | | | enables schools to engage future scenario |
| only 3 or 4 kids per class. | | | | planning, to share expertise, and to devise |
| - Our numbers are decreasing. Because we’re | | | | combined strategic plans to affect community |
| isolated, there’s not much up here anymore | | | | educational provision—including making decisions |
| employment-wise. We get a few transient families | | | | about what is educationally viable and what is |
| who will stay for 4-6 months and leave again… | | | | not” (Starr & White, 2008, pp. 8-9). |
| [This school] is not cost effective…and that | | | | Educational capacity and community development |
| makes you worry about what [will happen] in the | | | | should be co-mingled so that sustainability replaces |
| longer term. | | | | fear about school closures. Further, distance |
| - We have to make do and do more with less. | | | | learning opportunities allow the use of broad |
| There should be differential staffing that | | | | curriculums and enable the transmission of lessons |
| recognizes the real needs… But while we’re | | | | to students and parents (Starr & White, |
| losing numbers, the staffing formula makes things | | | | 2008). In this regard, all rural communities will |
| worse. You lose teachers and it’s even busier. | | | | benefit if everyone come together to present |
| We should have more control over human | | | | ideas which can solve this dilemma. |
| resources. | | | | Authors Rude & Whetstone (2008) put it all |
| (Starr & White, 2008, pp. | | | | together in this writing |
| 6-7). | | | | - The challenges facing educational communities |
| As a result of decreasing numbers in population, | | | | today are as sacred in their importance as they |
| school closures have increased over the past | | | | are difficult to undergo. It is up to ethical leaders in |
| several decades. If a rural school closes, it usually | | | | rural communities that are far away from the |
| means that children are forced to travel long | | | | mainstream of urban life to take a piece of the |
| distances to ascertain alternative schooling (Starr | | | | mess and not wait for higher authorities to figure |
| & White, 2008). | | | | out the answers. Those who do not see the |
| Significance of the Study | | | | significant benefits of adaptive changes that |
| Cruzeiro & Morgan (2006) write that | | | | benefit the school and community as a whole, to |
| inclusionary schools occur through purposeful | | | | the point where they simply cannot or will not go |
| leadership. The principal, Cruzeiro & Morgan | | | | along with the change will become casualties. |
| (2006) writes, is the key to leading others | | | | Ethical leaders are willing to accept these |
| through the change process. In order to do so, | | | | casualties as a result of courage and commitment |
| the principal must validate its perception with | | | | to ethical change based on moral purpose (p. 16). |
| other stakeholders in the school community, | | | | Recommends for Further Study. It is |
| including teachers, families, students and | | | | recommended, as a result of this study, that |
| community members, and also in other rural | | | | federal and state government fund further |
| communities (Cruzeiro & Morgan, 2006). | | | | investigation into small rural school principals (Starr |
| Validation, according to Cruzeiro & Morgan | | | | & White, 2008). That they encourage new |
| (2006) involves evaluating reported inclusion | | | | forms of resource allocation, and maintain an equal |
| efforts, in particular, leadership. | | | | distribution leadership in all schools. Further, that |
| School reform has criticized over the years for | | | | government and state officials invest in the future |
| universalizing schools and students (Wallin & | | | | of our schools by rewarding principals who work |
| Reimer, 2008). Such reform pays insufficient | | | | over and above the call of duty to maintain |
| attention to race, class or gender. The premise | | | | schools whose doors can now remain open. |
| takes into consideration the differences between | | | | “Rural research is essential because rural |
| rural and urban school. Further, commitment to a | | | | schools often face serious economic and |
| formal education which sustains local communities | | | | community resource constraints that place rural |
| is a thing of the past and has been replaced with | | | | students at risk for low motivation and lack of |
| national and global school improvement initiatives | | | | school success” (Hardré et al., 2007). |
| (Wallin & Reimer, 2008). The future health of | | | | References |
| rural schools is related to the sustainability of their | | | | Anonymous. (2007). Study: rural students better in |
| rural communities (Zacharakis et al., 2008). | | | | science. Techniques, 82(6), p. 59. |
| Literature Review | | | | Berkeley, T. R., & Ludlow, B. L. (2007). Ethical |
| Background. Wallin & Reimer (2008) write | | | | dilemmas in rural special education: a call for a |
| while rural scholars and educational stakeholders | | | | conversation about the ethics of practice. Rural |
| believe rural schools should serve local community | | | | Special Education Quarterly, 27(1/2), pp. 3-9. |
| interests, conflicts still exists over the purpose of | | | | Cruzeiro, P. A., & Morgan, R. L. (2006). The |
| schooling. Concerns in urban school reforms are | | | | rural principal’s role with consideration for |
| often overshadowed by those of the rural | | | | special education. Education, 126(3), pp. 569-579. |
| schools. Rural schools, according to Wright (2007), | | | | Hardré, P. L., Crowson, H. M., Debacker, T. K., |
| serve a vital role in recreating communities in a | | | | & White, D. (2007). Predicting the academic |
| highly mobile, industrialized society. Further, | | | | motivation of rural high school students. The |
| according to Wallin & Reimer (2008), rural | | | | Journal of Experimental Education, 75(4), pp. |
| schools are often plagued with educational | | | | 247-269. |
| problems such as (a) isolation from specialized | | | | Patterson, J. A., Koenigs, A., Mohn, G., & |
| services; (b) limited accessibility to quality staff | | | | Rasmussen, C. (2005). Working against ourselves: |
| development and university services; (c) teacher | | | | decision making in a small rural school district. |
| shortages in math and science; (d) decreasing | | | | Journal of Educational Administration, 44(2), pp. |
| enrollment which leads to decreased funding; and | | | | 142-158. |
| (e) declining pool of qualified administrative | | | | Rude, H. A., & Whetstone, P. J. (2008). Ethical |
| candidates. | | | | considerations for special educators in rural |
| Many rural schools offer fewer support and | | | | America. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 27(1 |
| extracurricular programs overall than nonrural | | | | 2), pp. 10-18. |
| schools (Hardré et al., 2007). Often times when | | | | Starr, K., & White, S. (2008). The small rural |
| studies are presented on school district issues, the | | | | school principalship: key challenges and |
| circumstances of rural schools are overlooked. As | | | | cross-school responses. Journal of Research in |
| a result, rural schools are not included in school | | | | Rural Education, 23(5), pp. 1-12. |
| improvement plans across all school systems | | | | Wallin, D. C., & Reimer, L. (2008). Educational |
| (Wallin & Reimer, 2008). Rural school principals | | | | priorities and capacity: a rural perspective. |
| are left bearing the burden of survival are | | | | Canadian Journal of Education, 31(3), pp. 591-613. |
| dependent on the funding from school districts. | | | | Wright, K. A. (2007). Reenergizing small |
| Analysis. It is quite evident that in order for | | | | communities: a vital role for rural schools. The |
| schools to succeed they must hire principals who | | | | Educational Forum, 71(4), pp. 345-360. |
| are willing to work to keep rural schools open. The | | | | Younker, K. (2008). Our mandate as teachers in a |
| school districts have an obligation to ensure that | | | | democracy. English Journal, 97(5), pp. 13-14. |
| they do all they can to encourage and motivate | | | | Zacharakis, J., Devin, M., & Miller, T. (2008). |
| school leaders. Districts need to consider | | | | Political economy of rural schools in the heartland. |
| promoting from within the community when | | | | Rural Special Education Quarterly, 27(3), pp. 16-22. |
| seeking loyal rural school principals. | | | | |